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British-American historian (1916–2018)

Bernard Lewis
Lewis in 2012
Born(1916-05-31)31 May 1916
London, England
Died19 May 2018(2018-05-19) (aged 101)
Voorhees Township, New Jersey, U.S.
Spouse(s)Ruth Hélène Oppenhejm
(married 1947–1974)
Children2
AwardsFellow of the British Academy
Harvey Prize
Irving Kristol Award
Jefferson Lecture
National Humanities Medal
Academic background
Alma materSOAS (BA, PhD)
University of Paris
Academic work
DisciplineHistorian
InstitutionsSOAS
Princeton University
Cornell University
Doctoral students
Feroz Ahmad
Main interests
Middle Eastern studies, Islamic studies
Notable works
InfluencedHeath W. Lowry, Fouad Ajami

Bernard Lewis (31 May 1916 – 19 May 2018) was a British-American historian specialized in Oriental studies.[1] He was also known as a public intellectual and political commentator. Lewis was the Cleveland E. Dodge Professor Emeritus of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. Lewis's expertise was in the history of Islam and the interaction between Islam and the West.

Lewis served as a soldier in the British Army in the Royal Armoured Corps and Intelligence Corps during the Second World War before being seconded to the Foreign Office. After the war, he returned to the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London and was appointed to the new chair in Near and Middle Eastern history.

In 2007, Lewis was called "the West's leading interpreter of the Middle East".[2] Others have said Lewis's approach is essentialist and generalizing to the Muslim world, as well as his tendency to restate hypotheses that were challenged by more recent research. On a political level, Lewis's detractors say he revived the image of the cultural inferiority of Islam and of emphasizing the dangers of jihad.[3] His advice was frequently sought by neoconservative policymakers, including the Bush administration.[4] His active support of the Iraq War and neoconservative ideals have since come under scrutiny.[5][6][7][8][9][10]

Lewis was notable for his public debates with Edward Said, who said Lewis was a Zionist apologist and an Orientalist who "demeaned" Arabs, misrepresented Islam, and promoted Western imperialism,[11][12] to which Lewis responded by saying Orientalism was a facet of humanism and that Said was politicizing the subject.[13][14]

Lewis was also known for denying the Armenian genocide. His argument that there was no evidence of a deliberate genocide carried out against the Armenian people by the Ottoman Empire is rejected by other historians.[15][16][17] He said that the mass killings resulted from a mutual struggle between two nationalistic movements, a view that has been criticized as "ahistorical".[18]

Early life, family and education

[edit]

Bernard Lewis was born on 31 May 1916 to middle-class British Jewish parents, Harry Lewis and the former Jane Levy,[19] in Stoke Newington, London. He became interested in languages and history while preparing for his bar mitzvah.[20]

In 1936, Lewis graduated from the University of London's School of Oriental Studies, the predecessor of School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), with a BA in history with special reference to the Near and Middle East. He received his PhD three years later at SOAS, specializing in the history of Islam.[21] Lewis also studied law, going part of the way toward becoming a solicitor, but returned to study Middle Eastern history. He undertook post-graduate studies at the University of Paris, where he studied with the orientalist Louis Massignon and earned his Diplôme des Études Sémitiques in 1937.[13]

Career

[edit]

Lewis worked at his alma mater the University of London's School of Oriental Studies, the predecessor of School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), in 1938 as an assistant lecturer in Islamic History.[22]

During the Second World War, he served in the British Army in the Royal Armoured Corps and as a corporal in the Intelligence Corps in 1940–41 before being seconded to the Foreign Office.[23]

After the war, he returned to SOAS, where he would remain for the next 25 years.[24] In 1949, at the age of 33, he was appointed to the new chair in Near and Middle Eastern History.[25] In 1963, Lewis was granted fellowship of the British Academy.[24]

In 1974, aged 57, Lewis accepted a joint position at Princeton University and the Institute for Advanced Study (also located in Princeton, New Jersey). The terms of his appointment were such that Lewis taught only one semester per year. Being free from administrative responsibilities, he could devote more time to research than previously. Lewis's arrival in Princeton marked the beginning of the most prolific period in his research career during which he published numerous books and articles based on previously accumulated materials.[26] After retiring from Princeton in 1986, Lewis served at Cornell University until 1990.[13]

Bernard Lewis in 2007

In 1966, Lewis was a founding member of the learned society Middle East Studies Association of North America (MESA). However, in 2007, he broke away and founded Association for the Study of the Middle East and Africa (ASMEA) to challenge MESA, which The New York Sun noted as "dominated by academics who have been critical of Israel and of America's role in the Middle East".[27]

In 1990, the National Endowment for the Humanities selected Lewis for the Jefferson Lecture, the US government's highest honor for achievement in the humanities. His lecture, "Western Civilization: A View from the East", was revised and reprinted in The Atlantic Monthly under the title "The Roots of Muslim Rage."[28][29] His 2007 Irving Kristol Lecture, given to the American Enterprise Institute, was published as Europe and Islam.[30]

Research

[edit]

Lewis's influence extends beyond academia to the general public. He began his research career with the study of medieval Arab, especially Syrian, history.[13] His first article, dedicated to professional guilds of medieval Islam, had been widely regarded as the most authoritative work on the subject for about thirty years.[31] However, after the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948, scholars of Jewish origin found it more and more difficult to conduct archival and field research in Arab countries, where they were suspected of espionage. Therefore, Lewis switched to the study of the Ottoman Empire, while continuing to research Arab history through the Ottoman archives[13] which had only recently been opened to Western researchers. A series of articles that Lewis published over the next several years revolutionized the history of the Middle East by giving a broad picture of Islamic society, including its government, economy, and demographics.[31]

Lewis argued that the Middle East is currently backward and its decline was a largely self-inflicted condition resulting from both culture and religion, as opposed to the post-colonialist view which posits the problems of the region as economic and political maldevelopment mainly due to the 19th-century European colonization.[32] In his 1982 work Muslim Discovery of Europe, Lewis argues that Muslim societies could not keep pace with the West and that "Crusader successes were due in no small part to Muslim weakness."[33] Further, he suggested that as early as the 11th century Islamic societies were decaying, primarily the byproduct of internal problems like "cultural arrogance," which was a barrier to creative borrowing, rather than external pressures like the Crusades.[13]

In the wake of Soviet and Arab attempts to delegitimize Israel as a racist country, Lewis wrote a study of antisemitism, Semites and Anti-Semites (1986).[13] In other works he argued Arab rage against Israel was disproportionate to other tragedies or injustices in the Muslim world, such as the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and control of Muslim-majority land in Central Asia, the bloody and destructive fighting during the Hama uprising in Syria (1982), the Algerian Civil War (1992–1998), and the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988).[34]

External videos
video icon Booknotes interview with Lewis on What Went Wrong?, 30 December 2001, C-SPAN[35]

In addition to his scholarly works, Lewis wrote several influential books accessible to the general public: The Arabs in History (1950), The Middle East and the West (1964), and The Middle East (1995).[13] In the wake of the 11 September 2001 attacks, the interest in Lewis's work surged, especially his 1990 essay The Roots of Muslim Rage. Three of his books were published after 9/11: What Went Wrong? (written before the attacks), which explored the reasons of the Muslim world's apprehension of (and sometimes outright hostility to) modernization; The Crisis of Islam; and Islam: The Religion and the People.[citation needed]

Abraham Udovitch described him as "certainly the most eminent and respected historian of the Arab world, of the Islamic world, of the Middle East and beyond".[36]

Columbia University historian Richard Bulliet said that Bernard Lewis "looked down on modern Arabs" and suggested that he considers them "worthy only to a degree they follow a Western path." Edward Said called him a Zionist apologist and an orientalist who "demeaned" Arabs.[37][38][39]

Armenian genocide

[edit]

The first two editions of Lewis's The Emergence of Modern Turkey (1961 and 1968) describe the Armenian genocide as "the terrible holocaust of 1915, when a million and a half Armenians perished".[40] In later editions, this text is altered to "the terrible slaughter of 1915, when, according to estimates, more than a million Armenians perished, as well as an unknown number of Turks".[41] In this passage, Lewis argues that the deaths were the result of a struggle for the same land between two competing nationalist movements.[18]

The change in Lewis's textual description of the Armenian genocide and his signing of the petition against the Congressional resolution was controversial among some Armenian historians as well as journalists, who suggested that Lewis was engaging in historical negationism to serve his own political and personal interests.[42]

Lewis called the label "genocide" the "Armenian version of this history" in a November 1993 interview with Le Monde, for which he faced a civil proceeding in a French court under the Gayssot Law.[43] The prosecution failed because the court determined that the law did not apply to events before World War II.[44] In a 1995 civil proceeding brought by three Armenian genocide survivors, a French court censured Lewis' remarks under Article 1382 of the Civil Code and fined him one franc, and ordering the publication of the judgment at Lewis' cost in Le Monde. The court ruled that while Lewis has the right to his views, their expression harmed a third party and that "it is only by hiding elements which go against his thesis that the defendant was able to state there was no 'serious proof' of the Armenian Genocide".[15][16][17] Three other court cases against Bernard Lewis failed in the Paris tribunal, including one filed by the Armenian National Committee of France and two filed by Jacques Trémollet de Villers.[45][46]

Lewis's views on the Armenian genocide were criticized by a number of historians and sociologists, among them Alain Finkielkraut, Yves Ternon, Richard G. Hovannisian, Robert Melson, and Pierre Vidal-Naquet.[47][48][49][50]

Lewis did not deny that large numbers of murders took place, but he denied that they were a purposeful Young Turk government policy and therefore they should not be categorized as a genocide.[51] In 2002, he argued for his denial stance:

This is a question of definition and nowadays the word "genocide" is used very loosely even in cases where no bloodshed is involved at all and I can understand the annoyance of those who feel refused. But in this particular case, the point that was being made was that the massacre of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire was the same as what happened to Jews in Nazi Germany and that is a downright falsehood. What happened to the Armenians was the result of a massive Armenian armed rebellion against the Turks, which began even before war broke out, and continued on a larger scale. Great numbers of Armenians, including members of the armed forces, deserted, crossed the frontier and joined the Russian forces invading Turkey. Armenian rebels actually seized the city of Van and held it for a while intending to hand it over to the invaders. There was guerilla warfare all over Anatolia. And it is what we nowadays call the National Movement of Armenians Against Turkey. The Turks certainly resorted to very ferocious methods in repelling it. There is clear evidence of a decision by the Turkish Government, to deport the Armenian population from the sensitive areas. Which meant naturally the whole of Anatolia. Not including the Arab provinces which were then still part of the Ottoman Empire. There is no evidence of a decision to massacre. On the contrary, there is considerable evidence of attempt to prevent it, which were not very successful. Yes there were tremendous massacres, the numbers are very uncertain but a million nay may well be likely.[52] [and] The massacres were carried out by irregulars, by local villagers responding to what had been done to them and in number of other ways. But to make this, a parallel with the holocaust in Germany, you would have to assume the Jews of Germany had been engaged in an armed rebellion against the German state, collaborating with the allies against Germany. That in the deportation order the cities of Hamburg and Berlin were exempted, persons in the employment of state were exempted, and the deportation only applied to the Jews of Germany proper, so that when they got to Poland they were welcomed and sheltered by the Polish Jews. This seems to me a rather absurd parallel.[53]

Lewis has been labelled a "genocide denier" by Stephen Zunes,[54] Israel Charny,[55] David B. MacDonald[56] and the Armenian National Committee of America.[57] Israeli historian Yair Auron suggested that "Lewis' stature provided a lofty cover for the Turkish national agenda of obfuscating academic research on the Armenian Genocide".[58] Israel Charny wrote that Lewis's "seemingly scholarly concern ... of Armenians constituting a threat to the Turks as a rebellious force who together with the Russians threatened the Ottoman Empire, and the insistence that only a policy of deportations was executed, barely conceal the fact that the organized deportations constituted systematic mass murder".[55] Charny compares the "logical structures" employed by Lewis in his denial of the genocide to those employed by Ernst Nolte in his Holocaust negationism.[59] Lewis has also falsely implied that the Armenians had military and police forces at their disposal, whom they could have called upon, when, in reality, they had no such forces at all.

Personal life and demise

[edit]

In 1947 he married Ruth Hélène Oppenhejm, with whom he had a daughter and a son. They divorced in 1974.[13] Lewis became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1982.

Lewis died on 19 May 2018 at age 101, at an assisted-living care facility in Voorhees Township, New Jersey, twelve days before his 102nd birthday.[92] He is buried in Trumpeldor Cemetery in Tel Aviv.[93]

Bibliography

[edit]

Awards and honors

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ "Bernard Lewis, Scholar and Political Advisor, Dead At 101". The Jerusalem Post. Jerusalem. 20 May 2018. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
  2. ↑ Abrahmson, James L. (8 June 2007). "Will the West – and the United States – Go the Distance?". American Diplomacy. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
  3. ↑ König, Daniel (2015). "Arabic-Islamic Records". Arabic-Islamic Views of the Latin West: Tracing the Emergence of Medieval Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-19-873719-3. OCLC 913853067.
  4. ↑ Weisberg, Jacob (14 March 2007). "AEI's weird celebration". Slate. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
  5. ↑ Neocons Gather To Fete Iraq War Godfather Bernard Lewis, The Forward
  6. ↑ Bernard Lewis revises Bernard Lewis (says he opposed invasion of Iraq!), Mondoweiss
  7. ↑ How neoconservatives led US to war in Iraq, The National (Abu Dhabi)
  8. ↑ Migdal, Joel (2014). Shifting Sands the United States in the Middle East. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 241. ISBN 978-0-231-53634-9.
  9. ↑
  10. ↑ Chaudet, Didier (2016). When Empire Meets Nationalism: Power Politics in the US and Russia. City: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-76253-8.
  11. 1 2 3 Said, Edward (1997) [1981]. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. New York: Random House. pp. xxx–xxxi. ISBN 978-0-679-75890-7.
  12. ↑ "Bernard Lewis obituary". TheGuardian.com. 6 June 2018.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Kramer, Martin (1999). "Bernard Lewis". Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing. Vol. 1. London: Fitzroy Dearborn. pp. 719–20. Archived from the original on 27 December 2010. Retrieved 23 May 2006.
  14. ↑ Edward W. Said; Oleg Grabar; Bernard Lewis (12 August 1982). "Orientalism: An Exchange". New York Review of Books. 29 (13).
  15. 1 2 "Paris, France, Court of First Instance". Armenian National Institute. Retrieved 25 February 2021.
  16. 1 2 Baer 2020, p. 141.
  17. 1 2 Auron 2003, p. 230.
  18. 1 2 Ronald Grigor Suny; Fatma Müge Göçek; Norman M. Naimark, eds. (2011). A Question of Genocide: Armenians and Turks at the End of the Ottoman Empire. Oxford University Press. pp. 31–33. ISBN 978-0-19-978104-1.
  19. ↑ "Lewis, Bernard 1916". Encyclopedia.com.
  20. ↑ Lewis 2004, pp. 1–2.
  21. ↑ "Bernard Lewis Cleveland E. Dodge Professor of Near Eastern Studies, Emeritus". princeton.edu. Princeton University. Archived from the original on 16 May 2006. Retrieved 26 May 2006.
  22. ↑ "Profile: Professor Bernard Lewis". The Telegraph. 15 February 2004. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
  23. ↑ Sugarman, Martin (6 October 2008). "Breaking the codes; Jewish personnel at Bletchley Park" (PDF). bletchleypark.org.uk. Bletchley Park. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 September 2013. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  24. 1 2 3 "Professor Bernard Lewis". The British Academy. Retrieved 14 December 2019.
  25. ↑ Lewis 2004, pp. 3–4.
  26. ↑ Lewis 2004, pp. 6–7.
  27. ↑ Karni, Annie (8 November 2007). "Group formed to improve Middle East scholarship". The New York Sun. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  28. 1 2 "Jefferson Lecture". neh.gov. National Endowment for the Humanities. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  29. ↑ Lewis, Bernard (1 September 1990). "The roots of Muslim rage". The Atlantic. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  30. 1 2 "The 2007 Irving Kristol Lecture by Bernard Lewis". AEI.org. American Enterprise Institute. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
  31. 1 2 3 Humphreys, R. Stephen (May–June 1990). "Bernard Lewis: An Appreciation". Humanities. 11 (3): 17–20. Retrieved 20 February 2015.
  32. ↑ Lewis 2004, pp. 156–80.
  33. ↑ Lewis, Bernard (2001). The Muslim Discovery of Europe. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-393-32165-4.
  34. ↑ Lewis, Bernard (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks. pp. 90–91, 108, 110–11. ISBN 978-0-8129-6785-2.
  35. ↑ "What Went Wrong". C-SPAN. 30 December 2001. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
  36. ↑ Aronson, Emily (22 May 2018). "Bernard Lewis, eminent Middle East historian at Princeton, dies at 101". Princeton University. Archived from the original on 14 December 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2019.
  37. ↑ "Bernard Lewis was an important, but flawed, academic mind".
  38. ↑ "Do not weep for Bernard Lewis, high priest of war in the Middle East".
  39. ↑ Joffe, Lawrence (6 June 2018). "Bernard Lewis obituary". TheGuardian.com.
  40. ↑ Karsh, Efraim (2007). Islamic Imperialism: A History. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-300-10603-9. Retrieved 21 February 2015. lewis.
  41. ↑ Baer, Marc David (10 March 2020). Sultanic Saviors and Tolerant Turks: Writing Ottoman Jewish History, Denying the Armenian Genocide. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-04543-0.
  42. ↑
  43. ↑ Nathaniel Herzberg (22 April 2005). "L'historien Bernard Lewis condamné pour avoir nié la réalité du génocide arménien". Le Monde.
  44. ↑ Auron 2003, pp. 228–229.
  45. ↑ "Les actions engagées par les parties civiles arméniennes contre "le Monde" déclarées irrecevables par le tribunal de Paris". Le Monde (in French). 27 November 1994.
  46. ↑ "Lewis Replies". Princeton Alumni Weekly. 5 June 1996. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  47. ↑ Auron, Yair (2005). The Banality of Denial: Israel and the Armenian Genocide. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-7658-0834-9.
  48. ↑ Melson, Robert (1992). Revolution and Genocide: On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-226-51990-6.
  49. ↑ MacDonald, David B. (2008). Identity Politics in the Age of Genocide: The Holocaust and Historical Representation. London: Routledge. p. 241. ISBN 978-0-415-43061-6.
  50. ↑ Finkelstein, Norman G. (2003). The Holocaust Industry: Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering. London: Verso. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-85984-488-5.
  51. 1 2 Pierpaoli, Paul G. Jr. (26 May 2015). "Lewis, Bernard". In Whitehorn, Alan (ed.). The Armenian Genocide: The Essential Reference Guide: The Essential Reference Guide. ABC-CLIO. pp. 169–170. ISBN 978-1-61069-688-3.
  52. ↑ "Statement of Professor Bernard Lewis, Princeton University, "Distinguishing Armenian Case from Holocaust"" (PDF). Assembly of Turkish American Associations. 14 April 2002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 July 2006. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  53. ↑ Getler, Michae (21 April 2006). "Documenting and Debating a 'Genocide'". PBS. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  54. ↑ Zunes, Stephen. "US Denial of the Armenian Genocide". Common Dreams. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  55. 1 2 Charny, Israel (17 July 2001). "The Psychological Satisfaction of Denials of the Holocaust or Other Genocides by Non-Extremists or Bigots, and Even by Known Scholars". IDEA. Archived from the original on 24 December 2007. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  56. ↑ Identity Politics in the Age of Genocide: The Holocaust and Historical Representation, By David B. MacDonald, Routledge, 2008, ISBN 0-415-43061-5, p. 121
  57. ↑ "Genocide Denier Bernard Lewis Honored at White House Ceremony – Asbarez.com". asbarez.com. 28 November 2006.
  58. ↑ Auron, Yair (2003). The Banality of Denial: Israel and the Armenian Genocide. Routledge. p. 230. ISBN 978-1-351-30542-6.
  59. ↑ Charny, Israel W. (2006). Fighting Suicide Bombing: A Worldwide Campaign for Life. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Security International. p. 241. ISBN 978-0-275-99336-8.
  60. ↑ Beinin, Joel (July 1987). "Review of Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice by Bernard Lewis". MERIP Middle East Report (147): 42–45. doi:10.2307/3011952. JSTOR 3011952.
  61. ↑ "Remarks by Vice President Cheney at the World Affairs Council of Philadelphia Luncheon Honoring Professor Bernard Lewis". The White House. 2 May 2006. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  62. 1 2 3 AbuKhalil, As'ad (29 June 2018). "The Legacy and Fallacies of Bernard Lewis". consortiumnews.com. Retrieved 30 June 2018.
  63. ↑ "About the Institute of Turkish Studies". Institute of Turkish Studies. Archived from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  64. ↑ Haque, Amber (2004). "Islamophobia in North America: Confronting the Menace". In Driel, Barry van (ed.). Confronting Islamophobia in Educational Practice. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-85856-340-4.
  65. 1 2 Ajami, Fouad (2 May 2006). "A Sage in Christendom: A Personal Tribute to Bernard Lewis". OpinionJournal. Retrieved 23 May 2006.
  66. ↑ Liebowitz, Ruthie Blum (6 March 2008). "One on One: When Defeat Means Liberation". Jerusalem Post.
  67. ↑ "Head count belies vision of 'Eurabia'". Financial Times. 19 August 2007.
  68. ↑ "Tales from Eurabia". The Economist. 22 June 2006.
  69. ↑ "Eurabian Follies". Foreign Policy. 4 January 2010.
  70. 1 2 3 4 Lewis, Bernard; Churchill, Buntzie E. (2015) [2008]. Islam: the religion and the people. Pearson Education. pp. 146, 151, 153. ISBN 9780134431192. OCLC 940955691.
  71. ↑ AbuKhalil, 2004, p. 134
  72. ↑ Said, Edward W. (1979). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-394-74067-6.
  73. ↑ Windschuttle, Keith (January 1999). "Edward Said's "Orientalism" Revisited". The New Criterion. 17: 30. Retrieved 27 February 2015.
  74. ↑ "Resources of Hope". Al-Ahram Weekly. No. 631. 2 April 2003. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 27 February 2015.
  75. ↑ Said, Edward W. (4 October 2001). "The Clash of Ignorance". The Nation. Retrieved 27 February 2015.
  76. ↑ Lewis, Bernard (1993). Islam and the West. New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-19-509061-1.
  77. ↑ Lewis, Bernard (24 June 1982). "The Question of Orientalism" (PDF). New York Review of Books. Retrieved 17 December 2017.
  78. ↑ Lewis, Bernard (27 September 2002). "Time for Toppling". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
  79. ↑ Weisberg, Jacob (14 March 2007). "AEI's Weird Celebration". Slate Magazine. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
  80. 1 2 3 Hirsh, Michael (November 2004). "Bernard Lewis Revisited". Washington Monthly. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
  81. ↑ Goldberg, Jeffrey (31 October 2005). "Breaking Ranks". New Yorker. Retrieved 30 June 2018.
  82. ↑ Leibowitz, Ruthie Blum (6 March 2008). "One on One: When Defeat Means Liberation". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
  83. ↑ Buruma, Ian (14 June 2004). "Lost in Translation: The Two Minds of Bernard Lewis". The New Yorker. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
  84. ↑ Bernard Lewis and His Reputation Archived 12 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine by As'ad AbuKhalil, 17 December 2012
  85. ↑ Lewis, Bernard (8 August 2006). "August 22". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 26 February 2015. What is the significance of Aug. 22? This year, Aug. 22 corresponds, in the Islamic calendar, to the 27th day of the month of Rajab of the year 1427. This, by tradition, is the night when many Muslims commemorate the night flight of Muhammad on the winged horse Buraq, first to "the farthest mosque," usually identified with Jerusalem, and then to heaven and back[Quran 17:1]. This might well be deemed an appropriate date for the apocalyptic ending of Israel and if necessary of the world. It is far from certain that Mr. Ahmadinejad plans any such cataclysmic events precisely for 22 Aug.. But it would be wise to bear the possibility in mind.
  86. ↑ Greene, Thomas C. (21 August 2006). "Nuclear Holocaust Starts Today: WSJ". The Register. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
  87. ↑ Eslocker, Asa (21 August 2006). "August 22: Doomsday?". ABC News. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
  88. ↑ Krieger, Hilary Leila (22 August 2006). "Apocalypse Now?". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
  89. ↑ Greene, Thomas C. (23 August 2006). "Nuclear Apocalypse Milder Than Expected: Back to the Ouija Board". The Register. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
  90. ↑ Gawenda, Michael (26 August 2006). "World Survives, But Solution on Iran is No Closer". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
  91. ↑ One week...and still no nuclear apocalypse, Aditya Dasgupta, 30 August 2006, Foreign Policy
  92. ↑ Murphy, Brian (19 May 2018). "Bernard Lewis, eminent historian of the Middle East, dies at 101". The Washington Post. Retrieved 19 May 2018.
  93. ↑ Kramer, Martin (26 July 2018). "Bernard Lewis rests among the greats". jns.org. Retrieved 26 July 2019.
  94. ↑ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
  95. ↑ "Prize Winners". harveypz.net.technion.ac.il. Technion – Israel Institute of Technology. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
  96. ↑ "Bernard Lewis". amacad.org. American Academy of Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
  97. ↑ "The National Book Critics Circle Award: 1996 Winners & Finalists". bookcritics.org. National Book Critics Circle. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
  98. ↑ "Past Winners". Jewish Book Council. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
  99. ↑ "Thomas Jefferson Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences". amphilsoc.org. American Philosophical Society. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
  100. ↑ "Ataturk Peace Prize to Bernard Lewis".
  101. ↑ "President Bush Awards the 2006 National Humanities Medals". neh.gov. National Endowment for the Humanities. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
  102. ↑ "Scholar-Statesman Award Dinner". washingtoninstitute.org. The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
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