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Symbol representing lesbian made from two interlocked astronomical symbols for the planet Venus. In biology, the singular symbol represents the female sex.[1][2]

This article addresses the history of lesbianism in the United States. Unless otherwise noted, the members of same-sex female couples discussed here are not known to be lesbian (rather than, for example, bisexual), but they are mentioned as part of discussing the practice of lesbianism—that is, same-sex female sexual and romantic behavior.

1600–1899

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Lesbian actress Charlotte Cushman, (left) as Romeo, with her sister Susan as Juliet in Romeo and Juliet in 1846. Nineteenth century lesbians like Cushman presented themselves publicly as close friends with their romantic partners.

Laws against lesbian sexual activity were suggested but usually not created or enforced in early American history. In 1636, John Cotton proposed a law for Massachusetts Bay making sex between two women (or two men) a capital offense, but the law was not enacted.[3] It would have read, "Unnatural filthiness, to be punished with death, whether sodomy, which is carnal fellowship of man with man, or woman with woman, or buggery, which is carnal fellowship of man or woman with beasts or fowls."[4] In 1655, the Connecticut Colony passed a law against sodomy between women (as well as between men), but nothing came of this either.[5] In 1779, Thomas Jefferson proposed a law stating that, "Whosoever shall be guilty of rape, polygamy, or sodomy with man or woman shall be punished, if a man, by castration. If a woman, by cutting thro' the cartilage of her nose a hole of one half inch diameter at the least", but this also did not become law.[6][7] However, in 1649 in Plymouth Colony, Sarah White Norman and Mary Vincent Hammon were prosecuted for "lewd behavior with each other upon a bed"; their trial documents are the only known record of sex between female English colonists in North America during the 17th century.[8] Hammon was only admonished, perhaps because she was younger than sixteen,[8] but in 1650 Norman was convicted and required to acknowledge publicly her "unchaste behavior" with Hammon, as well as warned against future offenses.[9] This may be the only conviction for lesbianism in American history.[10]

In the 19th century, lesbians were only accepted if they hid their sexual orientation and were presumed to be merely friends with their partners. For example, the term "Boston marriage" was used to describe a committed relationship between two unmarried women who were usually financially independent and often shared a house.[11] These relationships were presumed to be asexual, and hence the women were respected as "spinsters" by their communities.[12] Notable women said to be in Boston marriages included Sarah Jewett and Annie Adams Fields,[13][14] as well as Jane Addams and Mary Rozet Smith.[15][16][17]

Some American lesbians in the arts moved in the 19th century from the United States to Rome, including the actress Charlotte Cushman,[18] and sculptors Emma Stebbins[19] and Harriet Hosmer.[20] Around 1890, former acting First Lady Rose Cleveland started a lesbian relationship with Evangeline Marrs Simpson, with explicitly erotic correspondence.[21] This cooled when Evangeline married Henry Benjamin Whipple, but after his death in 1901 the two rekindled their relationship and in 1910 moved to Italy together.[23]

1900–1949

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Studies on lesbian activity in prisons

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A same-sex female couple on the cover of a 1915 criminology text.
A June 25, 1923 letter written to The Lincoln Star in defense of a lesbian.
Special Telegram to The Pittsburgh Post, June 26, 1927, expressing alarm over lesbianism in girls' schools.

The earliest published studies of lesbian activity were written in the early 20th century, and many were based on observations of, and data gathered from, incarcerated women. Margaret Otis published "A Perversion Not Commonly Noted" in 1913 in The Journal of Abnormal Psychology,[24] coupling a decidedly Puritanical moral foundation with an almost revolutionary sympathy for lesbian relationships.[25] Her focus revolved more around her revulsion for sexual contact between those of different ethnic backgrounds, yet offered an almost radical tolerance of the lesbian relations themselves. As Otis noted, "Sometimes the love [of one young woman for another] is very real and seems almost ennobling".[24]: 115 [25] This document provided a rare view from a tightly controlled setting monitored by a corrections supervisor. Kate Richards O'Hare, imprisoned in 1917 for five years under the Espionage Act of 1917, published a firsthand account of incarcerated women In Prison[26] complete with frightening accounts of lesbian sexual abuse among inmates. So wrote O'Hare: "...A thorough education in sex perversions is part of the educational system of most prisons, and for the most part the underkeepers [sic] and the stool pigeons are very efficient teachers..." O'Hare then recounted a systematic induction of women into a cycle of forced prostitution to which authorities turned a blind eye: "...there seems to be considerable ground for the commonly accepted belief of the prison inmates that much of its graft and profits may percolate upward to the under officials...the...stool pigeon...handled the vices so rampant in the prison...she, in fact, held the power of life and death over us, by being able to secure endless punishments in the blind, she could and did compel indulgence in this vice in order that its profits might be secured".[25]

Lesbian community

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Early academic study of lesbian community include lesbian Mildred Berryman's 1930's groundbreaking[27]: 897–898 [28] The Psychological Phenomena of the Homosexual[29]: 223, 228  on 23 lesbian women, whom she met through the Salt Lake City Bohemian Club.[30][31][32]: 66  In the study most of the subjects (many of whom had Mormon background)[33][34][35] reported experiencing erotic interest in others of the same sex since childhood,[29]: 120, 222  and exhibited self-identity and community identity[36] as sexual minorities.[29]: 222  During the 1920s lesbian subcultures were beginning to become more established in several larger US cities.[37] However, police raids happened on lesbian places, resulting in their closure, such as the Eve's Hangout in Greenwich Village, after the deportation of Eva Kotchever for obscenity.[38]

Lesbians in literature

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Gertrude Stein

Lesbians also became somewhat more prominent in literature at this time. In the early 20th century, Paris became a haven for many lesbian writers who set up salons there and were able to live their lives in relative openness. The most famous Americans of these were Gertrude Stein and Alice B. Toklas, who lived together there as a couple for many years. In 1922, Gertrude Stein published "Miss Furr and Miss Skeene", a story based on the American couple Maud Hunt Squire and Ethel Mars, artists who visited Stein and Toklas in Paris at Stein's salon.[39][40][41] In 1933, Stein published The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, a modernist memoir of her Paris years written in the voice of Toklas, which became a literary bestseller.[42] Another significant early 20th century writer about lesbian themes was Djuna Barnes, who wrote the book Nightwood.[43] Both Barnes and Gertrude Stein were visitors to another influential Parisian salon hosted by American expatriate Nathalie Barney, as was sculptor Thelma Wood, photographer Berenice Abbott and painter Romaine Brooks.[44] In 1923, lesbian Elsa Gidlow, born in England, published the first volume of openly lesbian love poetry in the United States, On A Grey Thread.[45][46]

Yet, openly lesbian literature was still subject to censorship. In 1928, British lesbian author Radclyffe Hall wrote a tragic novel of lesbian love, The Well of Loneliness. After the book was banned in England, Hall lost her first American publisher.[47][48] In New York, John Saxton Sumner of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice and several police detectives seized 865 copies of The Well from her second American publisher's offices, and Donald Friede was charged with selling an obscene publication. But Friede and his publishing partner Pascal Covici had already moved the printing plates out of New York in order to continue publishing the book. By the time the case came to trial, it had already been reprinted six times. Despite its price of $5 — twice the cost of an average novel — it would sell over 100,000 copies in its first year.[49]

In the United States, as in the United Kingdom, the Hicklin test of obscenity applied,[50] but New York case law had established that books should be judged by their effects on adults rather than on children and that literary merit was relevant.[49] Morris Ernst, co-founder of the American Civil Liberties Union, obtained statements from authors, including Theodore Dreiser, Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Edna St. Vincent Millay, Sinclair Lewis, Sherwood Anderson, H. L. Mencken, Upton Sinclair, Ellen Glasgow, and John Dos Passos.[51] To make sure these supporters did not go unheard, he incorporated their opinions into his brief. His argument relied on a comparison with Mademoiselle de Maupin by Théophile Gautier, which had been cleared of obscenity in the 1922 case Halsey v. New York. Mademoiselle de Maupin described a lesbian relationship in more explicit terms than The Well did. According to Ernst, The Well had greater social value because it was more serious in tone and made a case against misunderstanding and intolerance.[49] In an opinion issued on February 19, 1929, Magistrate Hyman Bushel declined to take the book's literary qualities into account and said The Well was "calculated to deprave and corrupt minds open to its immoral influences". Under New York law, however, Bushel was not a trier of fact; he could only remand the case to the New York Court of Special Sessions for judgment. On 19 April, that court issued a three-paragraph decision stating that The Well's theme — a "delicate social problem" — did not violate the law unless written in such a way as to make it obscene. After "a careful reading of the entire book", they cleared it of all charges.[49] Covici-Friede then imported a copy of the Pegasus Press edition from France as a further test case and to solidify the book's U.S. copyright.[49] Customs barred the book from entering the country, which might also have prevented it from being shipped from state to state.[52] The United States Customs Court, however, ruled that the book did not contain "one word, phrase, sentence or paragraph which could be truthfully pointed out as offensive to modesty".[53]

Most literature of the 1930s, '40s, and early '50s presented lesbian life as tragedy, ending with either the suicide of the lesbian character or her conversion to heterosexuality.[54] This was required so that the authorities did not declare the literature obscene.[55] For example, The Stone Wall, a lesbian autobiography with an unhappy ending, was published in 1930 under the pseudonym Mary Casal.[54] It was one of the first lesbian autobiographies. Yet as early as 1939, Frances V. Rummell, an educator and a teacher of French at Stephens College, published the first explicitly lesbian autobiography in which two women end up happily together, titled Diana: A Strange Autobiography.[56] This autobiography was published with a note saying, "The publishers wish it expressly understood that this is a true story, the first of its kind ever offered to the general reading public" [56] The first American magazine written for lesbians, Vice Versa: America's Gayest Magazine, was published from 1947–1948. It was written by a lesbian secretary named Edith Eyde, writing under the pen name Lisa Ben, an anagram for lesbian.[57] She produced only nine issues of Vice Versa, typing two originals of each with carbons.[58] She learned that she could not mail them due to possible obscenity charges, and even had difficulty distributing them by hand in lesbian bars such as the If Club.[58]

Furthermore, the Hays Code, which was in operation from 1930 until 1967, prohibited the depiction of homosexuality in all Hollywood films.[59][60]

Lesbians in the military

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USS Oak Hill FC 2nd Class Marissa Gaeta kisses her fiancé, FC 3rd Class Citlalic Snell, after three-month deployment. Virginia Beach, VA (2011)

Many lesbians found solace in the all-female environment of the United States Women's Army Corps (WAC), but this demanded secrecy, as lesbians were not allowed to serve openly in the U.S. military.[61][62][63] Over the years the military not only dismissed women who announced their lesbianism, but sometimes went on "witch hunts" for lesbians in the ranks.[62

2000–2020

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Civil unions and same sex marriage

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2000

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In 2000, civil unions were legalized in Vermont (the first state to do so) and Carolyn Conrad and Kathleen Peterson became the first couple in the United States to be civilly united.[204] Several other states have legalized civil unions since. Same-sex marriages also began to be legally recognized in the 2000s.

2004

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Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon became the first same-sex couple to be legally married in the United States in 2004,[205] when San Francisco mayor Gavin Newsom allowed city hall to grant marriage licenses to same-sex couples.[206] However, all same-sex marriages done in 2004 in California were annulled.[207] After the California Supreme Court decision in 2008 that granted same-sex couples in California the right to marry, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon remarried, and were again the first same-sex couple in the state to marry.[208] [209] Later in 2008 Proposition 8 illegalized same-sex marriage in California until 2013 (see below), but the marriages that occurred between the California Supreme Court decision legalizing same-sex marriage and the approval of Proposition 8 illegalizing it are still considered valid, including the marriage of Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon.[210] However, Del Martin died in 2008.[211]

Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon, the first same sex couple to be legally wed in the United States (2004)

In 2004, same-sex marriage was legalized in the state of Massachusetts, and Marcia Hams and Sue Shepherd became the first same-sex couple to receive a marriage license in Massachusetts.[212][213] Mary Bonauto, herself a lesbian, had argued and won the case that legalized same-sex marriage in the state of Massachusetts in 2003.[214][215] In March 2004, same-sex marriage was legalized in part of Oregon, as after researching the issue and getting two legal opinions, the commissioners decided Oregon's Constitution would not allow them to discriminate against same-sex couples. The Chairwoman of the Board of Commissioners ordered the clerk to begin issuing marriage licenses.[216] Mary Li of Portland and her partner, 42-year-old Becky Kennedy, became the first same-sex couple to marry in Oregon.[217] However, later that year, Oregon voters passed a constitutional amendment defining marriage as involving one man and one woman.[218] The same-sex marriages from 2004 were ruled void by the Oregon Supreme Court in 2005.[219]

2007

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Ciara Durkin becomes the first openly lesbian soldier to die in Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom. Her sexual orientation would become a source of speculation following her death.[220]

2008

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Same-sex marriage was legalized in Connecticut in 2008, and state Rep. Beth Bye and her girlfriend Tracey Wilson became the first same-sex couple to marry in Connecticut.[221][222] That same year, at the request of a same-sex female couple (Kitzen and Jeni Branting), the Coquille Indian Tribe on the southern Oregon coast adopted a law recognizing same-sex marriage. Tribal law specialists said the Coquille may be the first tribe to sanction such marriages.[223] In 2009 Kitzen and Jeni Branting married in the Coquille Indian tribe's Coos Bay plankhouse, a 3-year-old meeting hall built in traditional Coquille style with cedar plank walls. They were the first same-sex couple to have their marriage recognized by the tribe, of which Kitzen was a member.[224][225]

2009

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Same-sex marriage was legalized in Iowa in 2009, and Shelley Wolfe and Melisa Keeton became the first same-sex female couple (and the second same-sex couple) to marry in Iowa.[226][227] Same-sex marriage was legalized in Vermont in 2009,[228] and Claire Williams and Cori Giroux became one of the first same-sex couples to marry in Vermont (others including them married the moment same-sex marriage was legalized).

2010

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The lipstick lesbian flag was introduced in 2010 by Natalie McCray; this is a version with the kiss symbol changed. The lipstick lesbian flag has not been widely adopted;[229] due to some lesbians complaining that it is not inclusive of butch lesbians, while others have argued that McCray wrote biphobic, racist, and transphobic comments on her now-defunct blog.[230]

In 2010, same-sex marriage was legalized in the District of Columbia, and Sinjoyla Townsend and Angelisa Young became the first same-sex couple to marry in the District of Columbia.[231] That year same-sex marriage was also legalized in New Hampshire,[232] and Linda Murphy and Donna Swartwout became one of the first same-sex couples to marry in New Hampshire (others including them married the moment same-sex marriage was legalized).[233]

2011

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In 2011, Courtney Mitchell and Sarah Welton, both from Colorado, were married in Nepal's first public same-sex female wedding ceremony, although the marriage was not legally recognized in Nepal.[234] Same-sex marriage was legalized in New York state in 2011, and Kitty Lambert and Cheryle Rudd became the first same-sex couple to be married in New York state.[235][236] Also in that year, the Suquamish tribe of Washington state adopted a law proposed by a young lesbian tribal member (Heather Purser) recognizing same-sex marriage.[237][238]

2012

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In 2012, a same-sex couple (unknown if they were women or men) wed in December 2012 under Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribal law; the tribe will issue a marriage license to anybody who lives within the tribes' jurisdiction, if at least one person is a tribal member.[239] Also in 2012, Maine, Massachusetts, and Washington became the first states to pass same-sex marriage by popular vote.[240] Later that year Sarah and Emily Cofer became the first same-sex couple to be married in Washington,[241] and Donna Galluzzo and Lisa Gorney became one of the first same-sex couples to be married in Maine.[242]

2013

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A couple with their children at marriage equality rally, Seattle, WA (2013)

In 2013, in the case Hollingsworth v. Perry, which was brought by a same-sex female couple (Kristin Perry and Sandra Stier) and a same-sex male couple, the Supreme Court said the private sponsors of Proposition 8 did not have legal standing to appeal after the ballot measure was struck down by a federal judge in San Francisco, which made same-sex marriage legal again in California.[243][244] Kristin Perry and Sandra Stier were married shortly afterward, making them the first same-sex couple to be married in California since Proposition 8 was overturned.[245] Also in 2013, Delaware legalized same-sex marriage and state senator Karen Carter Peterson and her partner Vikki Bandy became the first same-sex couple to be married in Delaware.[246] Also in 2013, same-sex marriage was legalized in Minnesota, New Jersey, New Mexico, Rhode Island, and Utah, and by the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation in the state of Washington, the Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe, the Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians, the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians, and the Santa Ysabel Tribe.[247][248][249][250][251][252][253][254][255][256] However, several weeks after same-sex marriage was legalized in Utah a stay stopped it.[257] Also in 2013, Hawaii and Illinois legalized same-sex marriage, and Vernita Gray and Patricia Ewert became the first same-sex couple to marry in Illinois.[258][259] U.S. District Judge Thomas Durkin had ordered the Cook County clerk to issue an expedited marriage license to Gray and Ewert before the state's same-sex marriage law took effect in June 2014, because Gray was terminally ill; slightly later that same year, it was declared that all same-sex couples in Illinois where one partner had a terminal illness could marry immediately.[258][260]

2014

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In January 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Oklahoma, but the ruling was stayed; in 2014, a U.S. appeals court in Denver upheld the lower court ruling that struck down Oklahoma's gay-marriage ban, but that was also stayed.[261] In March 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Michigan, and Glenna DeJong and Marsha Caspar became the first same-sex couple married in Michigan; however, later that year the overturning of Michigan's ban on same-sex marriage was indefinitely stayed.[262][263] In May 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Arkansas, and Kristin Seaton and Jennifer Rambo became the first same-sex couple married in Arkansas; later that year, the Arkansas Supreme Court suspended same-sex marriages.[264][265] In May 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Oregon, and Deanna Geiger and Janine Nelson became the first same-sex couple to marry in Oregon.[266][267] Also in May 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Pennsylvania and Wisconsin, but later that year same-sex marriages in Wisconsin were put on hold while the ruling striking down the state's ban on such unions was appealed.[268][269][270] That same month, Idaho's same-sex marriage ban was declared unconstitutional, but another court stayed the ruling.[271][272] Also in 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Kentucky, but that ruling was put on hold and so no same-sex marriages were performed at that time.[273] Indiana performed same-sex marriages for three days in 2014, but then the ruling legalizing same-sex marriage in Indiana was likewise put on hold.[274] Similarly, a federal appeals court based in Denver found that states cannot ban gay marriage, but that ruling was put on hold pending an appeal; however, Boulder county clerk Hillary Hall (the first clerk to do so) and clerks in Denver and Pueblo counties issued marriage licenses to same-sex couples in Colorado in spite of the hold.[275][276] Later that year, same-sex marriage was legalized in Colorado, but the ruling was stayed.[277] Colorado's Supreme Court ordered the Denver county clerk to stop issuing marriage licenses to gay couples while the state's ban against the unions was in place.[278] While that decision did not include Boulder and Pueblo, Pueblo county agreed to stop issuing licenses at the request of the Attorney General's office, but Boulder's clerk did not.[275] Later that year a federal judge in Denver ruled Colorado's ban on same-sex marriage was unconstitutional, but the ruling was stayed.[279][280] Later that year the Colorado Supreme Court ordered Boulder County clerk Hillary Hall to stop issuing same-sex marriage licenses.[281]

Two women at the Capital Pride Parade, Washington, DC (2014)

Also in 2014, Monroe County, Florida, legalized same-sex marriages, but the ruling was stayed.[282] Later that year Miami-Dade Circuit Judge Sarah Zabel legalized same-sex marriage in Florida, but the ruling was stayed.[283] Shortly afterward, two more judges legalized same-sex marriage in Florida, but their rulings were stayed.[284][285] Toward the end of July 2014, the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals (covering Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas) ruled against Virginia's gay marriage ban, but the ruling was stayed.[286][287] However, in August 2014 a state court in Kingston, Tennessee, became the first to uphold a state ban on gay marriage since the Supreme Court's decision in 2013 in United States v. Windsor.[288] Also, in September 2014 a federal judge upheld Louisiana's ban on same-sex marriages, which was the first such loss for LGBTQ rights in federal court since the Supreme Court's decision in 2013 in United States v. Windsor.[289] But slightly later the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals legalized same-sex marriage in Indiana and Wisconsin, although the decision did not take effect then.[290] Also, Louisiana legalized same-sex marriage in September 2014, but the ruling did not take effect then.[291][292] In October 2014, the Supreme Court declined to hear the seven cases regarding same-sex marriage in Indiana, Oklahoma, Utah, Virginia, and Wisconsin, which meant lower court decisions ruling in favor of same-sex marriage stood, and therefore same-sex marriage then became legal in those states.[293]

Shortly later that month, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco declared same-sex marriage legal in Idaho and Nevada, but Supreme Court Justice Anthony Kennedy temporarily blocked that ruling for Idaho.[294][295] Shortly later a private group that had led the legal fight to defend the voter-approved ban on same-sex marriage withdrew its pending appeal for a stay with the Supreme Court, and thus same-sex marriage became legal in Nevada.[296] Nevada state Sen. Kelvin Atkinson and Sherwood Howard were the first same-sex couple to marry in Nevada.[296] Also in October 2014, a federal judge legalized same-sex marriage in North Carolina; although his federal judicial district only covers the western third of the state, North Carolina Attorney General Roy Cooper said that the federal ruling applied statewide.[297] Also that month Attorney General Patrick Morrisey announced he would no longer fight a challenge to West Virginia's same-sex marriage ban, and thus same-sex marriage was legalized in West Virginia.[298][299] Same-sex marriage was also legalized in Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, and Wyoming that month.[300][301][302][303][304] In November 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Kansas, but Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor issued an order temporarily blocking it.[305] The order was lifted later that month; although Kansas Attorney General Derek Schmidt said that a separate lawsuit he filed with the state Supreme Court should prevent gay marriage in all but the two counties that were home to cases covered in the ruling from the nation's capital (Douglas and Sedgwick counties) couples beyond Douglas and Sedgwick counties picked up marriage licenses also.[306][307] Later in November 2014 the Kansas Supreme Court ruled that Johnson County could issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples and left it to the federal courts to determine whether a Kansas ban on same-sex marriage violated the U.S. Constitution.[308] Derek Schmidt then asked the 10th Circuit Court of Appeals for an en banc hearing on the Kansas same-sex marriage ban, but the 10th Circuit refused.[309] Also in November 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Montana and South Carolina, although the ruling in South Carolina was stayed until later that month.[310][311][312] Kayla Bennett and Kristin Anderson were the first same-sex couple to be married in South Carolina.[313] That same month, same-sex marriage was legalized in Arkansas and Mississippi, but the rulings were stayed.[314] Also in November 2014, St. Louis Circuit Judge Rex Burlison ruled that Missourians in same sex relationships have the right to marry, and St. Louis County began complying with that ruling, as shortly after Jackson County also did.[315][316] But the judge who issued the ruling striking down Missouri's same-sex marriage ban stayed its order directing Jackson County to issue licenses to same-sex couples.[317] Also in November 2014, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld bans on same-sex marriage in Kentucky, Ohio, Tennessee, and Michigan, marking the first time since the Supreme Court's rulings in Windsor v. U.S. and Hollingsworth v. Perry (both of which were in favor of same-sex marriage) that any federal appeals court upheld a state's voter-approved ban on same-sex marriage.[318]

2015

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Pink lesbian flag with colors copied from the lipstick lesbian flag.

In January 2015, U.S. District Judge Robert Hinkle in Tallahassee ruled that all clerks in the state were required under the Constitution to issue marriage licenses to all same-sex couples.[319] On January 5, 2015, same-sex marriage was legalized in Miami-Dade County when Judge Sarah Zabel lifted the legal stay on her July decision legalizing same-sex marriage in Florida, and Karla Arguello and Catherina Pareto became the first same-sex couple married in Florida.[320][321] On January 6, 2015 same-sex marriage was legalized and began throughout Florida.[321] Also in January 2015, same-sex marriage was legalized in South Dakota, but the ruling was stayed.[322] Also that month, same-sex marriage was legalized in two separate rulings in Alabama, but both rulings were stayed.[323][324][325] However, in February 2015 same-sex marriage was legalized in Alabama after the Supreme Court refused Alabama's attorney general's request to keep same-sex marriages on hold until the Supreme Court ruled whether laws banning them are constitutional.[326] But the chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court, Roy Moore, wrote in his own order later that the latest ruling legalizing same-sex marriage in Alabama did not apply to the state's probate judges and directed them not to comply.[327] The judge who issued that latest ruling (Judge Callie V. S. Granade) then ruled that the local probate judge (Judge Don Davis of Mobile County) could not refuse to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples, after which Davis began issuing licenses to same-sex couples, as did many counties in Alabama.[327][328] On February 17, 2015, a Texas probate judge ruled that the state's ban on same-sex marriage was unconstitutional, as part of an estate battle.[329] Later that month Sarah Goodfriend and Suzanne Bryant became the first same-sex couple married in Texas, after their marriage license was issued in response to a district judge's order in Travis County because one of the women had been diagnosed with ovarian cancer.[330] However, the clerk's office noted that "[a]ny additional licenses issued to same sex couples also must be court ordered," and the Texas Supreme Court issued an emergency stay that same afternoon they were married.[330] Also in February 2015, the Central Council of Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska announced its courts were authorized to allow the performance of same-sex marriages.[331][332] In March 2015, same-sex marriage was legalized in Nebraska, but that was stayed until March 9 to give state officials time to appeal the ruling and ask for an extension of the stay, and then the Eighth Circuit granted the state's request, which placed same-sex marriage in Nebraska on hold until the federal appeals court ruled on Nebraska's marriage ban.[333][334] Also in March 2015, the Alabama supreme court ordered Alabama's probate judges to stop issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples, stating that a previous federal ruling that same-sex marriage bans violate the US constitution did not preclude them from following state law, which defined marriage as between a man and a woman.[335]

In May 2015, a federal judge ruled that same-sex marriage was legal in all Alabama counties, but placed her decision on hold until the Supreme Court issued a ruling on same-sex marriage.[336] On June 5, 2015, a judge issued a ruling which struck down Guam's statutory ban on same-sex marriage. The ruling was issued immediately after the court hearing proceedings and went into effect on 8 am Tuesday June 9. Same-sex marriages became performable and recognised in the U.S. territory from that date. Attorneys representing the government of Guam had said in a May 18 court filing that "should a court strike current Guam law, they would respect and follow such a decision".[337] On June 9, 2015, Loretta M. Pangelinan, 28, and Kathleen M. Aguero, 29, were the first of several same-sex couples to receive a marriage license in the territory's capital, Hagåtña.[338] The first couple to marry was Deasia Johnson of Killeen, Texas and Nikki Dismuke of New Orleans, who married each other in a brief ceremony in the office of Public Health Director James Gillan on the morning on June 9, 2015, the day the island territory became the United States' first overseas territory to recognize same-sex marriage.[339]

Finally, on June 26, 2015, the Supreme Court ruled by a 5-to-4 vote in Obergefell v. Hodges that the Constitution guarantees a right to same-sex marriage, legalizing it throughout the United States.[340] Mary Bonauto, herself a lesbian, was the attorney for the plaintiffs arguing in favor of same-sex marriage.[341][342] Organizations have estimated that there are approximately twenty million lesbian and gay Americans.[343]

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Orange-pink lesbian flag derived from the pink lesbian flag, circulated on social media in 2018.
Five-stripes variant of orange-pink lesbian flag.

Aside from the legalization of same-sex marriage, there were seven significant legal victories for lesbians from the year 2000 until 2020. In 2009, due to the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act being signed into law, the definition of federal hate crime was expanded to include those violent crimes in which the victim is selected due to their sexual orientation; previously federal hate crimes were defined as only those violent crimes where the victim is selected due to their race, color, religion, or national origin.[344] In 2011, the "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy was ended, allowing lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals in the U.S. military to be open about their sexuality.[345][346][347] The FAIR Education Act (Senate Bill 48) became law in California in 2011; this law requires the inclusion of the political, economic, and social contributions of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people and people with disabilities in California's educational textbooks and the social studies curricula in California public schools. In 2013, in the case United States v. Windsor, brought by lesbian Edie Windsor and argued by lesbian attorney Roberta Kaplan, the Supreme Court struck down Section 3 of the federal Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which had denied federal benefits to same-sex couples who were legally married in their states.[348][349][350][351][352] Also, in 2014, President Obama signed Executive Order 13672 adding both "sexual orientation" and "gender identity" to the categories protected against discrimination in employment and hiring on the part of federal government contractors and sub-contractors.[353] In 2015, an important victory came when the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission concluded that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 does not allow sexual orientation discrimination in employment because it is a form of sex discrimination.[354][355] In 2017, the Supreme Court ruled in Pavan v. Smith that in regard to the issuing of birth certificates, no state can treat same-sex couples differently than heterosexual ones; the case was brought by two same-sex female couples.[356][357][358]

Bostock v. Clayton County, 590 U.S. ___ (2020), was a landmark Supreme Court case in which the Court held that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects employees against discrimination because of their sexual orientation or gender identity.[359]

Setbacks regarding law

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In 2017, the Department of Justice filed an amicus brief in the 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals making the argument that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 does not prohibit discrimination against employees who are gay or bisexual.[360]

Lesbians in politics and business

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Tammy Baldwin, official 113th Congress photo portrait

In 2012, Tammy Baldwin became the first openly lesbian or gay senator in American history.[361] Another first for lesbians in politics came that year when the first lesbian Super PAC, LPAC, was founded by lesbian Urvashi Vaid to represent the interests of lesbians in the United States, and to campaign on LGBT and women's rights issues.[362][363][364][365][366]

In 2015 Aisha Moodie-Mills became the new president and CEO of the Victory Fund, which made her the first woman, first black woman, first lesbian, and first black lesbian to become the head of a national leading LGBTQ organization.[367][368]

Lesbian representation in media

[edit]

The turn of the century saw a gradual rise in mainstream lesbian representation. In Season 4 of Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003), the relationship between Willow Rosenberg and Tara Maclay's became one of the first prominent portrayals of a lesbian couple on American primetime television.[369][370] The series also featured the first lesbian sex scene in broadcast TV history.[371]

Showtime's The L Word (2004-2009) was the first series to feature a significant number of lesbian characters as its leads and to show diverse portrayals of lesbian identity. It is considered groundbreaking for its positive and multi-faceted portrayal of queer community.[372][373] Netflix's Orange is the New Black (2013-2019) similarly portrayed several lesbian characters and relationships and confronted various lesbian stereotypes throughout its plot lines.

In 2016, The CW's series The 100 sparked outrage amongst fans after it killed off one of its lead characters Lexa, a powerful leader and established lesbian, soon after confirming her relationship with protagonist Clarke Griffin. For many, Lexa's death was indicative of a wider pattern of lesbian characters dying contributing to the "Bury Your Gays" trope.[374][375] GLAAD's annual report on LGBT representation called 2016 "a very deadly year for queer female characters."[376]

A number of animated shows, many geared towards a younger audience, have been praised for their portrayals of lesbian relationships. In 2014, The Legend of Korra ended with a final shot that confirms a romantic relationship between Asami and Korra, pushing boundaries for representation in children's television.[377] She-Ra and the Princesses of Power (2018) similarly ends with Catra and Adora confessing their mutual love and sharing an on-screen kiss.[378][379]

DC Comics confirmed in 2020 that the modern Batwoman is an out lesbian.[380]

GLAAD reports that lesbian characters made up 40% of LGBT characters on broadcast television from 2021 to 2022.[381]

Orlando shootings

[edit]

On June 11, 2016, Pulse, a gay nightclub in Orlando, Florida, was hosting Latin Night, a weekly Saturday-night event drawing a primarily Hispanic crowd.[382][383] In what was the deadliest mass shooting and the worst terror attack since 9/11 to occur in the United States, a mass shooting then occurred which killed 50 people, including the shooter, and injured 53.[384][385][386][387][388] ISIL's Amaq News Agency claimed that the assault, "... was carried out by an Islamic State fighter".[389][390] The FBI identified the deceased gunman as Omar Mir Seddique Mateen, a 29-year-old American citizen born in New York to Afghani parents, and living in Port St. Lucie, Florida. Mateen called 9-1-1 during the attack and pledged allegiance to ISIL.[390]

Notable American lesbians

[edit]
Wanda Sykes at 2010 GLAAD Media Awards
Rachel Maddow (2008)

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 Zimmerman, Bonnie, ed. (2000). "Symbols, Christy Stevens". Lesbian Histories and Cultures: An Encyclopedia (1st ed.). Garland Publishing. p. 748. ISBN 0-8153-1920-7.
  2. 1 2 Stearn, William T. (17 August 1961). "The Male and Female Symbols of Biology". New Scientist. 11 (248): 412–413. LCCN 59030638.
  3. ↑ Mays, Dorothy A. (2004). Women in early America: struggle, survival, and freedom in a new world. ABC-CLIO. p. 232. ISBN 1-85109-429-6.
  4. ↑ Whitmore, William Henry (February 1995). The Colonial Laws of Massachusetts: Reprinted from the Edition of 1660, With the Supplements to 1672 : Containing Also, the Body of Liberties of. Fred B. Rothman &. ISBN 0-8377-2053-2.
  5. ↑ Foster, Thomas (2007). Long Before Stonewall: Histories of Same-Sex Sexuality in Early America. New York University Press.
  6. ↑ "Amendment VIII: Thomas Jefferson, A Bill for Proportioning Crimes and Punishments". Press-pubs.uchicago.edu. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
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Bibliography

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