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Law enforcement using combat methods

Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) team members, some armed with assault rifles, preparing for an exercise, 2009.
Liut Brigade members of the National Police of Ukraine in 2023, part of the Offensive Guard.
Military Police of São Paulo State officers in riot gear, 2016.
All-women riot police unit of the Ghana Police Service at the country's 59th Independence Day parade, 2016.

The militarization of police (sometimes referred to as the paramilitarization of police in some media) is the use of military equipment and tactics by law enforcement officers.[1] This includes the use of armored personnel carriers (APCs), assault rifles, submachine guns, flashbang grenades,[2] sniper rifles, and SWAT (special weapons and tactics) teams.[3][4] The militarization of law enforcement is also associated with intelligence agency–style information gathering aimed at the public and political activists[5][6] and with a more aggressive style of law enforcement.[7][8] Criminal justice professor Peter Kraska has defined militarization of police as "the process whereby civilian police increasingly draw from, and pattern themselves around, the tenets of militarism and the military model".[9]

Observers have noted the militarizing of the policing of protests.[10][11] Since the 1970s, riot police have fired at protesters using guns with rubber bullets or plastic bullets.[12] Tear gas, which was developed by the United States Army for riot control in 1919, is still widely used against protesters. The use of tear gas in warfare is prohibited by various international treaties[13] that most states have signed; however, its law enforcement or military use for domestic or non-combat situations is permitted.

Concerns about the militarization of police have been raised by both ends of the political spectrum in the United States, with both the libertarian Cato Institute[14] and the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)[15] voicing criticisms of the practice. The Fraternal Order of Police has spoken out in favor of equipping law enforcement officers with military equipment, claiming that it increases the officers' safety and enables them to protect members of the public and other first responders (e.g., firefighters and emergency medical services personnel).[16] However, a 2017 study showed that police forces which received military equipment were more likely to have violent encounters with the public, regardless of local crime rates.[17] A 2018 study found that militarized police units in the United States were more frequently deployed to communities with large shares of African-Americans, even after controlling for local crime rates.[18]

Many countries also have at least one gendarmerie, which is a military force with law enforcement duties among the civilian population.

France classifies some weapons as "intermediary force weapons" such as its LBD 40 refitted version of the Swiss B&T GL06 military grenade launcher, which is used in riot police situations or against individual persons in more specific interventions.

While not having the full power of military guns, some weapons are heavier than regular police weaponry and are still lethal. These are often referred to with the "limited lethality" appellation.

Brazil

[edit]
A Brazilian Federal Highway Police tactical team in the 2022 Independence Day parade

In 2013 "... Brazil saw countrywide demonstrations protesting a lack of basic services while the country was spending billions on the World Cup and the Olympics. The unprepared and overreacting police forces responded in a way that shocked the largely middle-class protesters. The police, using "non-lethal" weapons like pepper spray and rubber bullets while dressed from head to toe in ninja-like full battle gear, indiscriminately arrested both violent 'black bloc' demonstrators, known for their confrontational tactics and anarchist views, along with non-violent protestors marching peacefully." As a result, "... calls for de-militarization of the police—from social movements, non-governmental organizations, and even segments of the police itself—became widespread and remain one of the legacies of the World Cup". The Brazilian "... Military Police today, while not officially a wing of the Armed Forces, remains an institution with a strict military hierarchy, training that retains a military ideology, and practices that frequently resemble occupying forces conquering enemy territories".[19]

The units that responded to the protests were Shock Police, units specialized in riot control. The Military Police is an ancillary and reserve force of the Army, under the General Inspectorate of Military Police, being that a part of Land Operations Command. But, in time of peace, the state governor act as commander-in-chief of the Police and Firefighting Corps, according to the Constitution of Brazil, article 144, 6th paragraph, where it is said that the "Military Police and Firefighter Corps, ancillary and reserve forces of the Army, subordinate themselves, with the Civil Police, to the state and Federal District governors."[20]

The Brazilian Federal Highway Police (PRF) was also criticized for the creation of tactical teams during the Bolsonaro administration, during a process that was seen by some as a politically charged militarization of the force.[21] During this period, PRF tactical teams gained notoriety after taking part in two high-profile operations. The first one, which sought to apprehend criminals responsible for planning a series of high-profile bank robberies across the country known as the Novo Cangaço (New Cangaço), left 26 suspects dead after a raid in Varginha in October 2021. The second one, a joint incursion with BOPE in the Vila Cruzeiro favela of Rio de Janeiro, left 23 dead, including a civilian bystander.[21] Minister of Justice Flávio Dino of the Lula administration that followed sought to restructure the organization, mentioning the 2022 election controversy and claiming that it had "deviated" from its main role,[22] requiring a "depoliticization".[21][23]

[edit]
A Barrie Police officer in full riot gear at the 2010 G20 Toronto summit protests

Canadian legal expert Michael Spratt wrote, "... there's no question that Canadian police sometimes look more like post-apocalyptic military mercenaries than protectors of the peace. Our police services have been acquiring more and more military toys—a dangerous trend that's gotten little in the way of critical analysis in the mainstream media."[24] Growing numbers of Canadian police agencies have acquired armored vehicles in recent years.[25] In 2010 the Ottawa Police Service bought a Lenco G3 BearCat APC for $340,000, which has "half-inch-thick military steel armoured bodywork, .50 caliber–rated ballistic glass, blast-resistant floors, custom-designed gun ports and ... a roof turret".[26]

The G20 protests in Toronto in 2010 showed that the militarization of protest policing is not only occurring in the United States. Police in Toronto used a sound cannon, or Long Range Acoustic Device (LRAD)—a weapon that was developed for use in conflicts in the Middle East, as well as barricades, pre-emptive arrests and riot units.[27] According to Kevin Walby, an assistant professor of criminal justice at the University of Winnipeg, "the more interesting aspect of the militarization of the police is actually on the strategy side"; police are "increasingly training with military-style tacticians, especially when it comes to situations like crowd control and, increasingly, surveillance".[28]

On June 3, 2015, it was reported that "RCMP officers have started openly carrying MP5 submachine guns on Parliament Hill as part of a visible increase to Parliament Hill security following last October's terrorist attack" in 2014.[29] Conservative senator Vern White, a former RCMP officer and a former Ottawa police chief, says "... some RCMP officers guarding Parliament Hill against potential terrorist attacks should be armed with rifles similar to those carried by Canadian troops in Afghanistan [,]" the "... more powerful Colt C8 [which is] popular with police tactical teams and Canadian and other NATO alliance troops". White argues that the C8 carbines would give officers a much longer shooting range than the short-barreled MP5 submachine guns. "The RCMP is issuing more than 2,200 C8 carbines to its officers", but the RCMP has not indicated whether the C8s will be issued to Parliament Hill officers.[30]

The use of surplus armored vehicles for use by the RCMP and other police forces throughout the country are challenged by lawyers and academics since they can easily send the wrong message to the public.[31] According to Michael Spratt, an Ottawa-based criminal lawyer, the funds used to acquire the vehicles is better used for crime prevention activities.[32]

Colombia

[edit]
A Survivor R in blue-silver varnish for the German NRW Police as displayed at Eurosatory 2016

"Since 1999, an eight-billion-dollar programme in Colombia has seen the mass deployment of military troops and militarized police forces to both interdict illegal drugs and counter left-wing guerrilla groups". This assistance "promote[s] militarization to address organized crime".[33] Due to these U.S. policies, "civilian forces ... have increasingly received military training, leading to concerns over human rights violations and excessive use of force, as well as a lack of knowledge over how to deal with local protests—concerns startlingly similar to those now coming out of Ferguson, Missouri".[33]

France

[edit]

French police since the Charlie Hebdo shootings started to issue heavier guns to police instead of the standard SIG Sauer SP 2022 pistol issued per default. Before this heavier guns were only given to elite units but some units are now getting heavier weaponry such as the anti-criminality brigades which was given H&K G36 assault rifles.[34] 18 of the 19 shootings with this weapon were accidental discharges, the first year when this weapon was issued to anti-criminality policemen.[34]

Companies Republicaines de Sécurité which are an anti-riot unit are issued grenades which are classified as war weaponry in France. While gas weapons are forbidden for military use by the Geneva convention, which is signed by France too, no restriction applies to civilian use.[35]

In 2021, basing himself on the model of the Gendarmerie France's Interior's Minister Gérald Darmanin said he wished to extend the police reserve of 30 000 reservists (against the 5000 men reserve) to "recreate links" with police forces. This comes during the protests against the Loi Sécurité Globale.[36][37][38]

Germany

[edit]

In 2016, the German police introduced a new special unit, BFE+, which is designed to "counter terror attacks".[39] Criminologist Rafael Behr says the new BFE+ [de] "mainly serves as a psychological reassurance for the public", serving as a "symbolic" effort and a functional effort.[39]

The functional aspect is that with the BFE+, the government can use armed forces with military weapons inside Germany, an act that is "currently banned by the German constitution".[39] The 250 person BFE+ will be added to the existing GSG-9 unit. Behr states that the BFE+ will be able to "launch large-scale manhunts", using an "end of the policing spectrum" which "borders on war-like or military action".[39]

Indonesia

[edit]
Brimob troops of the Indonesian National Police

The Mobile Brigade Corps (Brimob) is an Indonesian militarized police force (paramilitary) which are often deployed for riot control, SWAT operations, anti-terror, domestic guerrilla warfare, domestic civil hostage rescue, search and rescue, and armed conflict management especially in areas with domestic conflict, such as in Papua and Poso.[40] It usually conducts joint operations with the Indonesian Army.

Italy

[edit]

Italy has a well-established tradition of police forces framed in military structures.

Even today, at least two of the national police forces, the Carabinieri and the Guardia di Finanza, are an integral part of the Italian Armed Forces. The Corpo delle Capitanerie di porto is a branch of the Marina Militare, and the Corpo forestale dello Stato, after its dissolution (2016), was mostly incorporated into the Carabinieri "forestali".

The Polizia di Stato has been demilitarized since 1981 and the Polizia Penitenziaria since 1990. However, both corps make extensive use of military equipment, especially in the area of weapons. The Reparti mobili della Polizia di Stato (informally dubbed la Celere) are logistically and organizationally similar to a military battalion; often their personnel operate jointly with personnel from Carabinieri battaglioni/reggimenti. The Prison Police has its own specialized department (Gruppo Operativo Mobile), which deals, among other things, with "facing critical situations in the prison environment."[41]

Despite its 1981 demilitarization, the Polizia di Stato has retained some of its military character.

During the Years of Lead, to deal with high-risk operational situations and also, specifically, as a result of the unsuccessful German response to the Munich massacre, NOCS (State Police) and GIS (Arma dei Carabinieri) were established, comparable to SWAT units from other countries.

Since 2008, thousands of members of the armed forces (mainly Italian Army) have been engaged in Operazione Strade sicure, basically to replace/assist law enforcement agencies in policing tasks (prevention/deterrence).[42]

The November 2015 Paris attacks had shown that normal police patrols could be ineffective against sudden terrorist attacks with military-grade weapons (nor, moreover, was it realistic to assume that the elite units described above could always be present in places that required an exceptional state response). Precisely to engage such attackers—enabling GIS or NOCS to intervene decisively, while limiting the risks to public safety—"intermediate tactical formations" Unità operative di primo intervento of the State Police, and Aliquote di primo intervento—Squadre operative di supporto of the Carabinieri were created.

Mexico

[edit]

Mexico's national police force, the National Guard, is partially staffed with active duty soldiers, part of a longstanding trend towards militarization of the country's Federal Police.[43]

According to a 2020 study, the use of torture by police has persisted in Mexico even though Mexico transitioned to democracy. Torture is still used due to "weak procedural protections and the militarization of policing, which introduces strategies, equipment, and mentality that treats criminal suspects as though they were enemies in wartime".[44]

United Kingdom

[edit]
PSNI march in unison, following the trail of loyalists flooding back into East Belfast
CTSFO boarding team during an Olympics security exercise

The Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) was the police force in Ireland from 1822 until 1922, when the country was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. This was a time of agrarian unrest and Irish nationalist/republican agitation. The RIC was a quasi-military police force: constables were armed with rifles, billeted in barracks, and the force had a militaristic structure and uniform.[45] During the Irish War of Independence, it was tasked with tackling the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and worked alongside the British Army. An Auxiliary Division and Ulster Special Constabulary were formed to carry out counter-guerrilla operations.

The RIC became the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) in Northern Ireland, which remained part of the UK. It remained a militarized police force due to the threat of IRA attacks. During the Northern Ireland conflict (1960s–1990s), the RUC routinely carried submachine guns and assault rifles, traveled in armored Land Rovers, were based in heavily fortified police stations[46] and worked alongside the British Army, sometimes mounting joint patrols and sharing the same bases. The RUC was the first police force to use rubber and plastic bullets for riot control. The "political and militarised"[47] RUC was succeeded by the Police Service of Northern Ireland, which continues to keep some counter-terrorism powers. Since the 2000s, its public order policing methods have been adopted by other police forces in the UK.[48]

Counter Terrorist Specialist Firearms Officer

[edit]

Following the 2012 London Summer Olympics, the Metropolitan Police Service established a new firearms officer role. This role was known as the Counter Terrorist Specialist Firearms Officer (CTSFO).[49] Prior to this establishment the highest Authorised Firearms Officer standard was the Specialist Firearms Officer. This new CTSFO role gained new equipment such as night vision goggles, armoured Ford Jankel Guardians, BMW F800GS motorcycles and brand new SIG MCX rifles. They also received training which was assisted by the Special Air Service such as fast roping from helicopters, abseiling, live fire CQB exercises and methods of explosive entry for door breaching. CTSFOs also have maritime capabilities from the Marine Policing Unit which allows them to raid vessels.50 This means that they can deploy from sea, air and land. Aspiring CTSFOs must complete a long gruelling selection course before achieving the role. When becoming a CTSFO they are established into teams to form a .

Types of teams and weapons

[edit]

SWAT teams

[edit]
A member of the Wichita Falls SWAT team conducts a rifle drill.

Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) teams are law enforcement units in the United States that use specialized or military equipment and tactics. First created in the 1960s for riot control or violent confrontations with criminals, the number and usage of SWAT teams increased in the 1980s and 1990s during the war on drugs, and in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks. In the United States today, SWAT teams are deployed 50,000–80,000 times every year, 80% of the time to serve search warrants, most often for narcotics. SWAT teams are increasingly equipped with military-type hardware and are trained to deploy against threats of terrorism, for crowd control, and in situations beyond the capabilities of ordinary law enforcement, sometimes deemed "high-risk". Other countries have developed their own paramilitary police units (PPU)s that are also described as or compared to SWAT police forces. SWAT units are often equipped with specialized firearms including submachine guns, assault rifles, breaching shotguns, sniper rifles, riot control agents, and stun grenades. They have specialized equipment including heavy body armor, ballistic shields, entry tools, armored vehicles, advanced night vision optics, and motion detectors for covertly determining the positions of hostages or hostage takers, inside enclosed structures.

The increased use of SWAT teams is a hallmark of increased police militarization. The Cato Institute's Radley Balko wrote that during the 1980s, there were about 3000 SWAT raids a year and as of 2005 there were 40,000 a year. SWAT teams being used for gambling crackdowns and serving a search warrant are routine in some places, like Fairfax, VA.[156] "There has been a more than 1400% increase in the amount of SWAT deployments between 1980 and 2000, according to estimates ... by Eastern Kentucky University professor Peter Kraska."[157] Balko states that in 2007, "... a Dallas SWAT team raided a Veterans [organization's] ... charity poker games. In 2010, a team of heavily armed Orange County, Florida, sheriff's deputies raided several barbershops, holding barbers and customers at gunpoint while they turned the shops inside out. Of the 37 people arrested, 34 were taken in for "barbering without a license".[158] The Orlando barbershop raids were subsequently challenged in court, and in 2014, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit ruled that it violated "clearly established Fourth Amendment rights" for the government to conduct "a run-of-the-mill administrative inspection as though it is a criminal raid".[159]

The ACLU has stated that "... heavily armed SWAT teams are raiding people's homes in the middle of the night, often just to search for drugs", causing people to "needlessly di[e] during these raids", in which neighborhoods are turned into "warzones".[125]

Snipers

[edit]
A U.S. Secret Service sniper on the roof of the White House

Law enforcement snipers, commonly called police snipers, and military snipers differ in many ways, including their areas of operation and tactics. A police sharpshooter is part of a police operation and usually takes part in relatively short missions. Police forces typically deploy such sharpshooters in hostage scenarios. This differs from a military sniper, who operates as part of a larger army, engaged in warfare. Sometimes as part of a SWAT team, police snipers are deployed alongside negotiators and an assault team trained for close quarters combat. As policemen, they are trained to shoot only as a last resort, when there is a direct threat to life; the police sharpshooter has a well-known rule: "Be prepared to take a life to save a life."[160] Police snipers typically operate at much shorter ranges than military snipers, generally under 100 meters (109 yd) and sometimes even less than 50 meters (55 yd). Both types of snipers do make difficult shots under pressure, and often perform one-shot kills.

Police units that are unequipped for tactical operations may rely on a specialized SWAT team, which may have a dedicated sniper. Police snipers placed in vantage points, such as high buildings, can provide security for events.[161] In one high-profile incident, Mike Plumb, a SWAT sniper in Columbus, Ohio, prevented a suicide by shooting a revolver out of the individual's hand, leaving him unharmed.[162][163]

The need for specialized training for police sharpshooters was made apparent in 1972 during the Munich massacre when the German police could not deploy specialized personnel or equipment during the standoff at the airport in the closing phase of the crisis, and consequently all the Israeli hostages were killed. While the German army did have snipers in 1972, the use of snipers of the German army in the scenario was impossible due to the German constitution's explicit prohibition of the use of the military in domestic matters. This lack of police trained snipers was later addressed with the founding of the specialized police counter-terrorist unit GSG 9, which subsequently became a widely copied model for a police special forces unit.

In September 2015, a San Bernardino Sheriff's Department sniper shot a suspect in a fast-moving car from a helicopter. The suspect leapt from his car and died on the side of the road, but his vehicle continued forward, striking another vehicle and critically injuring three civilians.[164]

Protest policing

[edit]
Rank of Icelandic National Police officers in full riot gear during the 2008 Icelandic lorry driver protests
A riot policeman sprays pepper spray at seated protesters during the WTO protests in Seattle in 1999.

Observers have noted the militarizing of the policing of protests.[10][11] Riot police are police who are organized, deployed, trained or equipped to confront crowds, protests or riots. Riot police may be regular police who act in the role of riot police in particular situations or they may be separate units organized within or in parallel to regular police forces. Riot police are used in a variety of different situations and for a variety of different purposes. They may be employed to control riots as their name suggests, to disperse or control crowds, to maintain public order or discourage criminality, or to protect people or property. In some cases, riot police may function as a tool of political repression by violently breaking up protests and suppressing dissent or civil disobedience.

Riot police often use special equipment termed riot gear to help protect themselves and attack protesters or rioters. Riot gear typically includes personal armor, batons, riot shields and riot helmets. Many riot police teams also deploy specialized less-than-lethal weapons, such as pepper spray, tear gas, rifles that fire rubber bullets or plastic bullets, flashbang grenades, and Long Range Acoustic Devices (sound cannons).

The police tactics used during the 2001 Quebec City protest serve as an example of the approaches used by North American riot police. During the protest, riot police fired tear gas canisters, water cannon, and rubber bullets,[165] dispersing large groupings of protesters both violent and peaceful, including teach-ins and teams of medics providing first aid to other protesters. Other tactical interventions aimed at arresting various perceived movement leaders.[166] Allegedly, "plastic bullets were being used increasingly [by riot police], and from guns with laser sights so at night people could often see that the cops were intentionally aiming for heads or groins".[167]

Military weapons

[edit]
A Colt AR-15 Carbine with a Colt 4×20 scope
A Colt AR-15 Carbine with a Colt 4×20 scope
A Colt M4 Carbine with ACOG scope
A Colt M4 Carbine with ACOG scope
An M16A1 assault rifle
An M16A1 automatic rifle
The Heckler & Koch MP5, a submachine gun
The Heckler & Koch MP5, a submachine gun

Between 2006 and 2014, almost 5,000 M16 rifles were distributed to local and state law enforcement agencies in Ohio under the surplus military equipment program.[168]

Effects

[edit]

A 2017 study found a statistically significant positive relationship between militarization of the police and fatalities from officer-involved shootings.[169][170]

Two studies in the American Economic Journal: Economic Policy concluded that federal grants of military equipment to local police under the 1033 Program led to a reduction in crime. However, these studies were criticized for using inappropriate data. Studies that used better data failed to replicate the findings of those studies.[171][172][173][174]

A 2018 study published in the journal PNAS found that "militarized police units are more often deployed in communities with large shares of African American residents, even after controlling for local crime rates". The study also found that "militarized policing fails to enhance officer safety or reduce local crime".[18]

[edit]

The 2015 video game Battlefield Hardline depicts a militarized police, and both police and criminals wielding military-grade equipment, including rifles, machine guns and grenade launchers. The developer's insistence on "fantasy" while meticulously recreating LA areas and loosely basing crimes in the game on real-life crimes has subsequently been criticized.[175][176][177]

The documentary Peace Officer, which is about police militarization in the U.S., won the 2015 Documentary Feature Competition Grand Jury award at the South by Southwest Film Festival.[178][179]

The documentary Do Not Resist by Craig Atkinson is also critical of the phenomenon of police militarization, as exemplified by law enforcement training courses taught by retired military officer Dave Grossman, who tells police officers, "You are men and women of violence." The film won the award for "Best Documentary Feature" at the Tribeca Film Festival.[180][181]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ "Militarization of Police In the United States". Charles Koch Institute. July 17, 2018. Archived from the original on April 22, 2020. Retrieved May 17, 2020.
  2. ↑ Texas Rangers, Department of Public Safety, Branch Davidian Evidence Archived January 7, 2009, at the Wayback Machine, Investigative Report No. 1, September 1999; Investigative Report No. 2, January 2000 (PDFs available at Texas Rangers website). The Rangers found that the FBI used grenade launchers to fire two 40 mm M651 grenades. The Army considers the M651 a pyrotechnic device and it is known to cause fires. The Army Tech Manual for the M651 warns that it can penetrate 3/4" plywood at 200 meters and "projectile may explode upon target impact". During inventory of the Waco evidence the Texas Rangers also found flashbang grenades.
  3. ↑ James Joyner (June 15, 2011). "Militarization of Police". Outside the Beltway. Archived from the original on December 21, 2015. Retrieved November 12, 2015.
  4. ↑ Paul D. Shinkman (August 14, 2014). "Ferguson and the Militarization of Police". U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on September 6, 2017. Retrieved September 5, 2017.
  5. ↑ Michael German (December 18, 2014). "Why Police Spying On Americans Is Everyone's Problem". Defense One. Archived from the original on January 23, 2015. Retrieved January 20, 2015.
  6. ↑ Josh Peterson (March 25, 2014). "State lawmakers push to rein in police spying". Fox News Channel. Archived from the original on March 17, 2015. Retrieved January 20, 2015.
  7. ↑ Ryan Van Velzer (June 24, 2014). "ACLU: Free military weapons making Arizona police more aggressive". The Arizona Republic.
  8. ↑ Jodie Gummow (August 29, 2013). "11 over-the-top U.S. police raids that victimized innocents". Salon. Archived from the original on January 20, 2015. Retrieved January 20, 2015.
  9. ↑ GLENN GREENWALD (August 14, 2014). "THE MILITARIZATION OF U.S. POLICE: FINALLY DRAGGED INTO THE LIGHT BY THE HORRORS OF FERGUSON". The Intercept. Archived from the original on January 11, 2015. Retrieved January 17, 2015.
  10. 1 2 "Crisis and Control". uchicago.edu. Archived from the original on May 10, 2016. Retrieved December 29, 2015.
  11. 1 2 "Congress scrutinizes police militarization before planned Ferguson protest". aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on January 14, 2016. Retrieved December 29, 2015.
  12. ↑ http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/plastic+bullet Archived June 6, 2015, at the Wayback Machine "A solid PVC cylinder, 10 cm long and 38 mm in diameter, fired by police or military forces to regain control in riots."
  13. ↑ E.g. the Geneva Protocol of 1925: "Prohibited the use of 'asphyxiating gas, or any other kind of gas, liquids, substances or similar materials'"
  14. ↑ "20. Stopping Police Militarization". Cato Institute. February 16, 2017. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017. Retrieved May 17, 2020.
  15. ↑ "Police Militarization". American Civil Liberties Union. Archived from the original on March 24, 2020. Retrieved May 17, 2020.
  16. ↑ "Militarized or Modernized?". FOPConnect. Retrieved May 17, 2020.
  17. ↑ Ryan Welch and Jack Mewhirter (June 30, 2017). "Does military equipment lead police officers to be more violent? We did the research". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on June 30, 2017. Retrieved June 30, 2017.
  18. 1 2 Mummolo, Jonathan (2018). "Militarization fails to enhance police safety or reduce crime but may harm police reputation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (37): 9181–9186. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.9181M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1805161115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6140536. PMID 30126997.
  19. ↑ "Police Militarization: Similarities Between Ferguson and Brazil". wola.org. Archived from the original on July 16, 2015. Retrieved June 14, 2015.
  20. ↑ "Legislação". www.coter.eb.mil.br (in Brazilian Portuguese). Archived from the original on March 17, 2016. Retrieved March 19, 2017.
  21. 1 2 3 "Em meio a resistências, governo avança na 'despolitização' da PRF" (in Portuguese). Exame. January 31, 2023. Retrieved April 20, 2023.
  22. ↑ "Flávio Dino entrevistou três cotados para o comando da PRF no governo Lula" (in Portuguese). O Globo. December 15, 2022. Retrieved April 21, 2023.
  23. ↑ Oliva, Gabriela (April 7, 2023). "'Queremos despolitizar', diz Flavio Dino sobre PRF e PF" (in Portuguese). O Tempo. Retrieved April 20, 2023.
  24. ↑ Michael Spratt (August 15, 2014). "The creeping militarization of the police". iPolitics. Archived from the original on December 2, 2014. Retrieved January 17, 2015.
  25. ↑ Douglas Quan (August 21, 2014). "'We call it a rescue vehicle': Growing number of Canadian police forces bulking up with armoured vehicles". National Post. Archived from the original on December 27, 2014. Retrieved January 17, 2015.
  26. ↑ "Canadian Police Militarization". Michael Spratt. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved January 28, 2015.
  27. ↑ "Canadian police agencies: Innovators in militarization?". rabble.ca. September 9, 2014. Archived from the original on December 28, 2014. Retrieved January 28, 2015.
  28. ↑
  29. ↑ Berthiaume, Lee (June 4, 2015). "Mounties now toting submachine guns for Hill security". Ottawa Citizen. Archived from the original on September 30, 2017. Retrieved January 27, 2019.
  30. ↑ Pugliese, David (June 5, 2015). "Boost firepower of Mounties guarding Parliament Hill, says senator". Ottawa Citizen. Archived from the original on August 26, 2018. Retrieved January 27, 2019.
  31. ↑ "Windsor Police To Take Donated Military Vehicle Into Service (PHOTOS)". August 28, 2014. Archived from the original on April 4, 2019. Retrieved March 20, 2019.
  32. ↑ "Canadian police forces bulking up with armoured vehicles". canada.com. August 21, 2014. Archived from the original on December 26, 2017. Retrieved March 20, 2019.
  33. 1 2 "Despite Current Debate, Police Militarisation Goes Beyond U.S. Borders". ipsnews.net. August 18, 2014. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015. Retrieved May 27, 2015.
  34. 1 2 "C'est quoi le problème avec les fusils d'assaut des policiers?". www.20minutes.fr (in French). October 16, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2021.
  35. ↑ Jacques, Pezet (November 26, 2018). "La Convention sur l'interdiction des armes chimiques interdit-elle le gaz lacrymogène?" [Are Chemical Weapons Authorised in France for Police Use?]. CheckNews. Libération (in French). Paris. Retrieved December 27, 2025.
  36. ↑ "Gérald Darmanin veut créer une réserve de la police nationale". www.20minutes.fr (in French). January 26, 2021. Retrieved January 31, 2021.
  37. ↑ Beaumont, Olivier; Décugis, Jean-Michel (January 25, 2021). "'Je veux créer une réserve de la police nationale': les pistes de Gérald Darmanin pour moderniser l'institution". Le Parisien (in French). Retrieved January 31, 2021.
  38. ↑ "Création de 30.000 réservistes dans la police nationale: l'idée inquiète les syndicats en Mayenne". France Bleu (in French). January 26, 2021. Retrieved January 31, 2021.
  39. 1 2 3 4 "Germany's new anti-terror units: A paramilitary excess?". Deutsche Welle. January 28, 2016. Archived from the original on January 8, 2017. Retrieved December 23, 2016.
  40. ↑ "The Militarization of Police at Home and Abroad". american.edu. Archived from the original on January 19, 2015. Retrieved January 19, 2015.
  41. ↑ Gruppo Operativo Mobile on the website of the Prison Police
  42. ↑ "Operazione 'Strade sicure'" (in Italian). Retrieved September 9, 2017.
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  180. ↑
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